Goals

After reading this article, you will be able to do the following:

1. Identify the different field-note types used in ethnographic research.
2. Understand the language identification principle and the verbatim principle.
3. Understand the benefits of using a voice recorder.
4. Understand the role of language in creating an ethnographic record.

Introduction

In ethnographic research, using field notes is an important aspect of documenting the cultural scene–the specific context or setting that the researcher is studying—such as a physical location or a social event. Field notes include written observations, interviews, records, diaries, and other personal documents (Creswell, 2009), and are a crucial component of any ethnographic record. They provide a rich data source from which the ethnographer can analyze and draw conclusions. Recording field notes involves grappling with the challenge of capturing the cultural scene’s essence through language (Spradley, 2016). In this chapter, you will learn about several field-note types and principles to guide your ethnographic explorations with cultural groups.

Condensed Account

Let’s begin by exploring four field-note type that make up an ethnographic record (Spradley, 2016). The first type is the condensed account. It includes notes taken during interviews or field observations that represent a summary of what occurred. This field-note type is important since it is not possible to write down everything that happens or everything that informants say. To make a condensed account, only write down phrases and words that informants use during every interview, and the real value comes when it is expanded after the interview or field observation.

Expanded Account

The second field-note type is the expanded account. It represents an expanded condensed version. As soon as possible after each field session, you fill in details and recall things that you didn’t record on the spot. Key words and phrases serve as useful reminders to create the expanded account, and it is necessary to include verbatim statements from different speakers. Voice-recorded interviews, when fully transcribed, represent one of the most complete expanded accounts. However, some ethnographers transcribe only parts of an interview, listening to the voice recordings to create an expanded account. Or, they make an index of the recording (Spradley, 2016).

Journal Account

In addition to the condensed account and expanded account, ethnographers should always keep a journal, which is the third field-note type. This journal is a record containing experiences, ideas, fears, mistakes, confusions, breakthroughs, and problems that arise during field work (Dyson & Genishi, 2005). Date each journal entry and reread it later since it is easy to forget what occurred during the first days and weeks of field work. The journal becomes an important data source months later when you—the ethnographer—begin to write up the study. The journal enables you to take into account personal biases and feelings and to understand how these influence the research (Spradley, 2016).

Analysis and Interpretation

The fourth field-note type provides a link between the ethnographic record and the final written ethnography—the analysis and interpretation notes. Here is the place to analyze and record cultural meanings, interpretations, and insights into the culture that you are studying. Analysis and interpretation notes represent a kind of brainstorming—ideas may come from past readings, some theoretical perspective, or an informant’s comment. These field notes are essential to create a detailed analysis and can help you think on paper about the culture that you are considering (Spradley, 2016).

Language Identification and the Verbatim Principle

Now that we have navigated four field-note types, we will focus on two important principles to help guide your ethnographic work: the language identification principle and the verbatim principle. These principles aim to reduce the ethnographer’s influence in not translating competently when making an ethnographic record. The language identification principle requires you to identify the language used for each field note entry and to identify the speaker using parentheses, quotation marks, or brackets. This helps to ensure that the ethnographic record reflects the same differences in language usages as the actual field situation. Consider the following example:

In this case, the ethnographer has used quotation marks to indicate that stack is a technical term the engineers use. By doing so, the ethnographer has identified the language used in the field situation, identified the informant, and ensured that the ethnographic record reflects the same differences in language usages as the actual situation.

The verbatim principle, on the other hand, requires that you make a verbatim record of what people say—recording native terms verbatim and distinguishing them from observer terms. Failure to distinguish these terms leads to a distorted and incomplete understanding of the culture you are studying. See this verbatim-principle example below:

In this case, the ethnographer has made a verbatim record of what John said during the meeting. By doing so, the ethnographer has avoided the tendency to translate or simplify John’s statement, ensuring that the ethnographic record accurately reflects the words John uses.

Voice Recording

Using amalgamated language to record field notes can simplify the process, but it can also result in cultural meanings being distorted when making an ethnographic record (Spradley, 2016). It is important to make a verbatim record of what people say to ensure accuracy. The best way to do this during interviews is to use a voice recorder, but this may not always be advisable, especially during the first few interviews when you are beginning to develop rapport.

To introduce an informant to the voice recorder, in a casual manner ask questions such as, “How would you feel about voice-recording this interview?” This allows the informant to express their comfort level with the recording, and it may open up the conversation about the recorder.

If the informant expresses interest and eagerness, suggest recording just a small part of the interview at first. For example, you could say, “This is so interesting and I’m learning so much, I wonder if you would mind if I voice-recorded some of this. I can turn it off any time you want.” This approach acknowledges the informant’s enthusiasm and gives them control over the recording process. Additionally, explain a voice recorder’s benefits, such as having a more accurate interview record, which is helpful for transcribing later.

It may also be helpful for you to explain your note-taking process during the interview. This reassures the informant that they are not solely relying on the voice recorder and that you value their input. By introducing the voice recorder gradually and taking the informant’s cues, you establish trust and rapport with your informant, creating a more productive interview. Keep in mind that notetaking during the interview is always necessary since voice recorders may not work, or you may need information before it is transcribed.

Language

Let’s now focus on how language plays a significant role in creating an ethnographic record, specifically in relation to discovery, description, and translation. Although these processes are often seen as distinct, they frequently occur simultaneously in practice. Ethnographic records serve as a bridge between discovery and description, linking them into a single, intricate process. Early field-note descriptions eventually find their way into the final ethnography, and the discoveries that you make during the fieldwork lead to additional findings to record.

Each ethnographic step involves translation, which emphasizes how important it is for you to take careful field notes. Ethnographers must decide what language to use when making an ethnographic record, which can influence your discovery and description processes’ success (Spradley, 2016). Make this decision based on the research and the audience context—those who will be reading the final ethnography. Additionally, because the ethnographic record is an ongoing process, the language used in field notes may evolve over time to better capture the research’s complexities. Therefore, it is essential to pay close attention to the language used in the ethnographic record throughout the research process.

Practice

Consider the following steps to prepare for and to conduct observations using field notes.

1. Choose a place that interests you to conduct your observations. It could be a park, a coffee shop, a library, or any other public place.
2. Create an observation sheet that includes the following sections. Spend at least thirty minutes observing the place you have chosen and make detailed notes in each section.
   1. Condensed Accounts: Write brief and concise descriptions of events, actions, and interactions that you observe.
   2. Expanded Accounts: Write more detailed descriptions of what you observe, including dialogue, body language, and any other relevant information.
   3. Journal Account: Write your personal reflections and reactions to what you observe. This can include your thoughts, feelings, and any insights you gain from your observations.
   4. Analysis and Interpretations: Write the data analysis and interpretations that you collected. This can include identifying patterns, themes, or making connections between different observations.
3. Make an ethnographic record using the entries that you wrote in each section to complete the field work.
4. Reflect on the ways that you followed language identification and verbatim principles. Did you accurately capture dialogue and body language? Did you use appropriate terminology to describe what you observed? Did you remain neutral and avoid making assumptions or judgments?
5. Review your field notes and make any necessary revisions or additions. Think about how you can use your observations to answer research questions or to gain a deeper understanding of the place or people you observed.
6. Repeat the exercise in unusual places and with different research questions to build your skills in conducting observations and creating field notes.

References

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed). Sage Publications.

Dyson, A. H., & Genishi, C. (2005). On the case: Approaches to language and literacy research. Teachers College Press.

Spradley, J. P. (2016). The ethnographic interview. Holt Rinehart & Winston.