1 Essential Concepts in Ethnographic Research
Simone Flanigan
Goals
After reading this article, you will be able to do the following:
- Classify ethnography as a valuable research method.
- Develop observational abilities to produce strong research.
- Demonstrate and appreciate cultural relativity.
- Differentiate between emic and etic perspectives.
- Recognize ethnographic research contributions and why it makes us stronger researchers and writers.
What Is Ethnography?
For generations, ethnography has been an indispensable research approach for writers and researchers. “Ethnography is the study of people in naturally occurring settings or ‘fields’ by methods of data collection which capture their social meanings and ordinary activities, involving the researcher [directly]” (Harrison, 2018, emphasis added). Ethnographic research is a cultural adventure where researchers can saturate themselves in a specific group’s daily lives, rituals, and stories. This research offers us the chance to be a part of unique experiences and engaging conversations through firsthand observations called fieldwork. Ethnographic research is more than just interesting—it’s fun!
Key to ethnographic research is having a genuine desire to understand a culture or a specific aspect of a culture. Culture is defined as “an invisible web of behaviors, patterns, rules, and rituals of a group of people who have contact with one another and share a common language” (Chiseri-Strater & Sunstein, 1997). Understanding this web gives us the skills to uncover compelling stories, to authentically portray the richness of human experiences, and to employ rhetorical devices that work for a broad audience.
By engaging in rigorous fieldwork, students of all disciplines can develop a keen eye for detail, hone their observational abilities, and cultivate a deep understanding of society’s complexities. When we study behaviors, customs, beliefs, and social interactions with purpose—we can more deeply understand cultural diversity, social dynamics, and intricate human behavior. Challenging ourselves to deeply connect with a group through ethnographic research offers us the chance to become stronger advocates and more persuasive writers. So, regardless of whether you are an anthropology student or a first-year writing student, “a good writer must be a good ethnographer” (Spradley & McCurdy, 1972).
Purpose and Methodology
Ethnographic research’s purpose is to offer a holistic view of a particular culture or community by using various methods such as observing participants, conducting interviews, collecting field notes, and creating audio-visual documents to capture everyday life’s nuances. By embedding yourself within the culture’s social fabric, you experience the intricacies of rituals, traditions, language, power structures, and social norms. Although we often think of ethnography as studying others, a stronger way to engage with your ethnographic work is to approach the group as people you are learning from (Spradley, 1980).
Ethnographies encompass a wide range of topics and settings, from small-scale communities to large organizations. Possibilities include urban ethnography—studying social dynamics in urban settings, medical ethnography—exploring healthcare systems and practices, and digital ethnography—investigating online communities and digital cultures. There are also countless examples of where to conduct ethnography, from a local coffee shop to a refugee camp and everything in between. But no matter what ethnography type you seek to pursue, there are essential concepts worth noting.
Cultural Relativity
One fundamental ethnographic-research principle is to recognize cultural relativity. Ethnographers acknowledge that diverse cultures have unique ways of interpreting and experiencing the world. Through observing participants, we must suspend judgment and strive to understand cultural practices and beliefs within their specific context. This approach challenges ethnocentrism and helps to promote cultural diversity and respect for diverse ways of life.
Cultural relativity means rather than seeing through the lens of one’s own cultural biases or assumptions, the ethnographer interprets the culture within the context of the culture they are learning from. Cultural relativity acknowledges that there is no universal standard for what is right, wrong, superior, or inferior and that cultural practices are evaluated and understood within their cultural framework. Cultural relativity promotes a respectful and non-judgmental approach to studying and appreciating diverse cultures.
What is Cultural Relativity?
Matt is a student ethnographer focused on immigrant rights and experiences. During his fieldwork, he interviews Maya, an immigrant from Syria who shares her personal story of migrating and adapting to a new city. Maya explains that in Syrian culture, it is customary for extended family members to live together in the same household, providing mutual support and fostering a powerful sense of community. However, upon immigrating to the new country, Maya encountered an unfamiliar cultural norm that emphasizes individualism and nuclear family structures. Initially, Matt views Maya’s experiences through the lens of his cultural values and assumes that the nuclear-family model is universally desirable. However, through cultural relativity, he recognizes that Syrian immigrants, like Maya, carry with them a rich cultural heritage that influences their family dynamics and sense of belonging and that neither living with or apart from extended family is better or worse.
Fieldwork
Fieldwork is the practical aspect of ethnographic research and refers to the period in which researchers conduct observations in the community they are learning from. During fieldwork, researchers directly engage with community members and collect data through observing, interviewing, documenting findings through field notes, and other methods.
What is Fieldwork?
Omar is researching income inequality and decides to focus on a specific low-income neighborhood near where he lives. Over several weeks, he attends community meetings, conducts interviews with residents, and observes local businesses. By observing participants, Omar gains insights into the daily challenges that community individuals face, such as limited access to quality education and healthcare. He also conducts in-depth interviews with residents, capturing their personal stories and perspectives on income inequality’s effects. By placing himself in the field, Omar aims to illuminate marginalized individuals’ lived experiences and to advocate for social change to address income disparities.
Participant Observation
An important part of fieldwork is observing participants. It is a key ethnographic research method and involves immersing yourself in the community that you’ve chosen to study, actively participating in their activities and observing their behaviors and interactions. This approach allows you to gain an insider’s perspective and to understand the culture from within.
What is Participant Observation?
Maria, focusing on racial injustice in America, observes participants by immersing herself in a community historically impacted by racial discrimination. Because Maria has friends in the community that connect her to various other people, she attends local church services, neighborhood association meetings, and community events. She actively engages with residents like David, a twenty-eight-year-old African American man who has been a victim of racial profiling. Maria spends time with David, documenting unjust treatment instances. She also interviews him and other community members, investigating their racial discrimination experiences in various contexts such as employment, education, and housing. By becoming closely involved with the community, Maria aims to capture nuanced narratives and firsthand accounts of racial injustice, seeking to bring awareness to systemic racism’s pervasive impact in people’s everyday lives.
Emic versus Etic Perspectives
Ethnographies provide a platform to explore both emic and etic perspectives. Emic refers to an insider’s view—you understand the world as the culture’s members experience and understand it. Etic, on the other hand, refers to an outsider’s perspective—you offer comparative analysis and insights from a broader social-science framework. The interplay between these two perspectives enriches our cultural understanding and helps us to identify commonalities and differences across societies.
What is the difference between Emic and Etic?
Ava passionately advocates for gender-equality and adopts an emic perspective by immersing herself in the experiences of marginalized women. She volunteers at a local women’s shelter, listens to women’s stories, and participates in support groups. Through these firsthand interactions, Ava gains an intimate understanding of the unique challenges faced by women who have experienced domestic violence, discrimination, and limited access to resources.
On the other hand, Ethan takes an etic perspective in studying gender inequality. He conducts cross-cultural research, analyzes global trends, and conducts surveys to collect data on gender disparities across various societies. By examining statistical patterns, societal norms, and institutional structures, Ethan provides a comparative gender-inequality analysis, highlighting commonalities and variations between different regions and cultures. Ava’s emic perspective enables her to grasp the marginalized women’s lived realities, recognizing their experience’s intricacies and nuances. She develops empathy and a deep understanding of the social, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to gender inequality. Ethan’s etic perspective, on the other hand, allows him to identify broader patterns, analyze systemic issues, and offer comparative insights into the ways gender inequality manifests across different societies.
Ethical Considerations and Reflexivity
Ethical considerations play a crucial role in conducting ethnographic research. As responsible ethical researchers, we must establish trust and build rapport with the study community, ensure informed consent, and protect the participant’s privacy and dignity. The process prioritizes the community’s well-being. Additionally, we need to be reflexive, acknowledging our own biases and positionality in the research process.
We must reflect on our cultural backgrounds and experiences, questioning how these may influence our observations and interpretations. Reflexivity helps ensure transparency and minimizes potential unexpected research biases.
What Does It Mean to Be Ethical and Reflexive?
Ryan is a student ethnographer looking at mental health. To be ethically considerate, Ryan obtains the participants’ informed consent, respects their confidentiality, and safeguards their identities throughout the research. Ryan establishes a trustworthy and respectful rapport with participants, maintaining open communication and addressing any concerns that may arise. Ryan prioritizes being reflexive by acknowledging potential biases and preconceptions related to mental health. For instance, if Ryan has personal experiences with depression, he may unintentionally interpret participants’ stories through his own lens. To be reflexive and address this, Ryan engages in regular self-reflection, questions his own biases, and actively listens to the participants’ experiences and perspectives without imposing judgments.
Ethnographic Contributions
Ethnographies have made significant contributions to how we understand various aspects of human life. They have helped uncover hidden subcultures, shed light on social inequalities, and challenged stereotypes. Ethnographic research informs policy decisions, influences social change, and provides valuable insights into cultural practices that may be at risk of disappearing.
Ethnographic research offers a unique lens through which we can examine and appreciate human cultures’ diversity. By immersing ourselves in the lives of individuals and communities, we capture human existences’ intricacies and complexities, foster empathy and respect, and gain a deeper understanding of our global society.
Conclusion
When we learn from the lives and perspectives of others, we develop empathy, cultural competence, and critical thinking skills. Ethnographic research fosters a deeper appreciation for diversity, challenges assumptions, and promotes a more inclusive and equitable society. Through ethnographic research, you develop essential writing skills, research capabilities, cultural sensitivity, and critical thinking abilities. This unique way of researching allows us to deepen our understanding of human experiences, expand our perspectives, and equip us with valuable rhetorical tools that assist in social change.
Practice
Before diving into your ethnographic research, it’s a good idea to think about your audience, purpose, research design, and potential biases and impediments by asking yourself the following questions:
- What social issue are you curious about and why?
- Look for what’s relevant, pressing, and addresses existing challenges. Ask what has the potential to bring about positive change.
- Look for issues that contribute to social injustice, inequality, or systemic problems. Consider the potential for your research to generate knowledge, raise awareness, or contribute to positive social change.
- What biases might you be carrying that could impede your research?
- Biases can significantly obstruct research by influencing the way you collect, interpret, and present data.
- Be aware of confirmation bias, selection bias, stereotypes, and preconceived ideas.
- What difficulties might you face with your group in conducting ethnographic work?
- We may struggle to study certain groups due to challenges in gaining access, building trust, overcoming language and cultural barriers, navigating power dynamics, addressing sensitive topics, and managing personal biases and external restrictions. Being aware of certain challenges can ensure that you pick the right group to learn from.
- What is your research design?
- Clearly define your research objectives, questions, and scope. Determine the specific community or culture that you want to study and establish your research focus. Develop a research plan that outlines the methods you will employ, your study’s duration, and any anticipated challenges or ethical considerations.
- How familiar are you with the culture you want to study?
- Gain a foundational understanding of the culture or community that you will be studying. Read about their history, traditions, social structures, and any relevant cultural norms or practices. This background knowledge helps you navigate the community, understand the context, and ask informed questions during interviews or observing participants. It will also help you communicate with gatekeepers and participants to gain access to the group itself.
References
Chiseri-Strater, E., & Sunstein, B. S. (1997). Field working: Reading and writing research. Prentice-Hall.
Harrison, A. K. (2018). Ethnography. Oxford University Press.
Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College.
Spradley, J. P., & MacCurdy, D. W. (1972). The cultural experience. Science Research Associates.
